Materials:

1. Category 5 UTP Cable

2. 2 RJ-45 Connector

3. Cutter

4. Crimper

5. Stripper

Procedure:

1. Strip about an inch of the plastic jacket. Be very careful not to cut the wires inside the jacket as this will alter its condition or make it useless.

2. Separate the wires inside the jacket. Untwist those wires and make sure that the untwisted wires are only about ½ inch otherwise it will be “out of specs”.

3. Arrange the wires in the same way listed below,

Crossover Connection

Straight-through Connection

After arranging the wires, carefully cut those wires evenly about ½ inch from the jacket.

1. Insert those wires in the RJ-45 connector. Make sure that the end of each wire touches the tip of the connector.

2. Insert the connector to the crimper and give it a good grip. You will here some clicking sound. Keep pressing it for a couple of second until the clicking sound stop.

3. Test the cable and hope that it works. That’s all.

I just hope you guys will have the same experience as I did in making those cables. I only did it ones and it worked! THANK GOD! The hardest part there was the untwisting the wires properly and arranging the colors. That’s all. Good Luck to you all!

Windows 95

This was a consumer-oriented graphical user interface-based operating system. It was released on August 24, 1955 by Microsoft.

Features:

1. 32-bit – support for performance in Windows which supports long file names.

2. Long file names – support long file names that MS-DOS cannot recognize through the use of the VFAT file system.

3. User interface – GUI, graphical user interface. The first that uses “Start” button and taskbar to Microsoft’s GUI.

Editions:

1. Windows 95 Retail

   • version 4.00.950

   • released on 1995

   • doesn’t support USB, FAT32 and UDMA

1. Windows 95 Retail SP1

   • version 4.00.950a

   • released on December 31, 1995

   • doesn’t support USB, FAT32 and UDMA

1. OEM Service Release 1

   • version 4.00.950A

   • released on 1996

   • doesn’t support USB, FAT32 and UDMA

1. OEM Service Release 2

   • version 4.00.950B(4.00.1111)

   • released on 1996

   • doesn’t support USB

   • supports FAT32 and UDMA

1. OEM Service Release 2.1

   • version 4.00.950B(4.03.1212)

   • released on 1996

   • supports USB, FAT32 and UDMA

1. OEM Service Release 2.5

   • version 4.00.950C(4.03.1214)

   • released on 1997

   • supports USB, FAT32 and UDMA

System Requirements:

1. • Intel 80386 DX CPU of any speed

   • 4 MB of system RAM

   • 50 MB of hard drive space

Windows 98

This is formerly known as Windows 97 and codenamed Memphis. It is a graphical operating system released on June 25, 1998 by Microsoft and the successor to Windows 95. It is a hybrid 16-bit/32-bit monolithic product based on MS-DOS.

New and Updated Features:

1. Better AGP support

2. Functional USB drivers

3. Functional support for multiple monitors and WebTV

4. Support for the FAT32 file system which supports disk partitions larger than two gigabyte.

Editions:

1. Windows 98

1. • (see above)

1. Windows 98 Second Edition

1. • released on May 5, 1999

   • includes fixes for many minor issues in Windows 98

   • improved USB support

   • replacement of Internet Explorer 4.0 with Internet Explorer 5

   • includes Internet Connection Sharing

System Requirements:

1. • 486DX2, 66 MHz or higher processor

   • 16MB of RAM (24MB recommended)

   • at least 500 MB of space available on HDD

   • BGA or higher resolution monitor

   • CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive

   • Microsoft Mouse or compatible pointing device

Windows 2000

Windows 2000 (also referred to as Win2K) is a preemptible, interruptible, graphical and business-oriented operating system that was designed to work with either uniprocessor or symmetric multi-processor 32-bit Intel x86 computers.

Two Layers:

1. User Mode

1. • Refers to the mode in which user programs are run.

   • Made of subsystem capable of passing I/O requests to the appropriate kernel mode drivers by using I/O manager.

   • Made up of two subsystems:

1.1 Environmental subsystem

- was designed to run applications written for many different types of operating systems

- these applications, however, run at a lower priority than kernel mode processes

- three main environmental subsystems:

1. 1. 1. Win32 subsystem

- runs 32-bit Windows applications and also supports Virtual DOS Machines, which allows MS-DOS and 16-bit Windows 3.x applications to run on Windows

1. 1. 1. OS/2 environment subsystem

- supports 16-bit character-based OS/2 applications and emulates OS/2 1.3 and 1.x, but not 32-bit or graphical OS/2 applications as used on OS/2 2.x or later

1. 1. 1. POSIX

- supports applications that are strictly written to either the POSIX.1 standard or the related ISO/IEC standards

1.2 Integral subsystem

- looks after operating system specific functions on behalf of the environment subsystem

- consists of a security subsystem, workstation service and server service

1. Kernel Mode

1. • has unrestricted access to the system memory and external devices.

   • Stops user mode services and applications from accessing critical areas of the operating system that they should not have access to.

Windows 2000 has four editions:

1. Professional Edition

1. • designed as the desktop operating system for businesses and power users.

   • Offers greater security and stability than many of the previous Windows desktop operating systems.

   • Supports up to two processors, and can address up to 4GB of RAM.

   • System Requirements (Recommended System Requirements):

1. Pentium Processor @ 133 MHz or greater (Pentium II)

2. At least 64 MB of ram (128 MB of RAM)

3. 650 MB of had drive space (1 GB of hard drive space)

4. CD-ROM drive

1. Server Edition

1. • share the same user interface with Windows 2000 Professional, but contain additional components for running infrastructure and application software.

   • has a significant component of the server products is Active Directory, which is an enterprise-wide directory service based on LDAP.

   • Microsoft integrated Kerberos network authentication, replacing the often-criticized NTLM authentication system used in previous versions.

1. Advanced Server Edition

1. • a variant of Windows 2000 Server operating system designed for medium-to-large businesses.

   • Offers clustering infrastructure for high availability and scalability of applications and services, including main memory support of up to 8 gigabytes (GB) on Physical Address Extension(PAE) systems and the ability to do 8-way SMP.

   • It has support for TCP/IP load balancing and enhanced two-node server clusters based on the Microsoft Cluster Server (MSCS) in the Windows NT Server 4.0 Enterprise Edition

1. Datacenter Server

1. • a variant of the Windows 2000 Server that is designed for large businesses that move large quantities of confidential or sensitive data frequently via a central server.

   • it supports clustering, failover and load balancing.

New Features:

1. Windows File Protection

1. • prevents programs (with the exception of Microsoft’s update programs) from replacing critical Windows system files and thus making the system inoperable.

Windows ME

Windows Millennium Edition (Windows Me) is a hybrid 16-bit/32-bit graphical operating system released on September 14, 2000 by Microsoft. It was originally codenamed Millennium.

New and Updated Features:

1. System Restore

1. • meant to simplify troubleshooting and solving problems.

   • It was intended to work as a “safety net” so that if the installation of an application or a driver adversely affected the system. The user could undo the install and return the system to previously-working state.

1. System File Protection

1. • first introduced as Windows File Protection

   • expanding on the capabilities introduced with System File Checker in Windows 98

   • aimed to protect system files from modification and corruption silently and automatically.

1. New TCP/IP Stack

1. • support for networking over FireWire, wireless infrared and a new Home Networking wizard is also included.

1. Universal Plug and Play

1. • first introduce in this operating system.

   • Often shortened to UPnP

1. Windows Image Acquisition

1. • for standardized and officially supported method of allowing Windows applications to transparently and more easily communicate with image acquisition devices, such a digital cameras and scanners.

1. Automatic Updates

1. • automatically downloads and installs critical updates from the Windows Update Web site with little user interaction.

1. Compressed Folders

1. • user can create and access ZIP files.

   • User can also restrict access to files with a password using compressed folders.

1. Image Preview

1. • images can be viewed by using the Image Preview utility.

   • Makes it possible to rotate an image, print or zoom in/out an image.

1. Games

1. • offers several new games

1. On-Screen Keyboard

1. • makes it possible to input characters by using the mouse instead of the keyboard.

1. System Configuration Utility

1. • updated with three new tabs called “Static VxDs”, “Encironment” and “International”.

1. System Monitor

1. • updated with a Dial-Up Adapter section.

   • Users can now monitor items such as Connection Speeds, Bytes Received or Transmitted/Second.

1. New Help and Support

1. • replacing Windows Help in Windows 2000 and 98.

1. USB mass storage drivers

1. • the only Windows 9x series that includes generic drivers for USB mass storage devices.

System Requirements (Recommended System Requirements):

1. • 150 MHz Pentium or compatible processor (Pentium II 300 MHz)

   • 320 MB of free hard drive space

   • at least 32 MB of RAM (96 MB of RAM)

Windows XP

Windows experience (XP) is a line of proprietary operating systems developed by Microsoft for use on general-purpose computer systems, including home and business desktops, notebook computers, and media centers. This was first released on October 25, 2001.

Editions:

1. Windows XP Home Edition

1. • designed for home users

1. Windows XP Professional Edition

1. • designed for business and power users

   • includes these features that are unavailable in the Home Edition:

1. The ability to become part of a Windows Server domain

2. A sophisticated access control scheme that allows specific permissions on files to be granted to specific users under normal circumstances

3. Remote Desktop server, which allows a PC be operated by another Windows XP user over a local area network or the Internet.

4. Offline Files and Folders, which allow the PC to automatically store a copy of files from another networked computer and wok with while disconnected from the network.

5. Encrypted File System, which encrypts files stored on the computer’s had drive so they cannot be read by another user, even with physical access to the storage medium.

6. Centralized administration features, including Group Policies, Automatic Software Installation and maintenance, Roaming User Profiles, and Remote Installation Service (RIS).

7. Internet Information Services (IIS), Microsoft’s HTTP and FTP Server.

8. Support for two physical central processing units (CPU)

New and Updated Features:

1. Faster start-up and hibernation sequences

2. The ability to discard a newer device driver in favor of the previous one, should a driver upgrade not produce desirable results

3. A new, arguably more user-friendly interface, including the framework for developing themes for the desktop environment.

4. Fast User switching, which allows a user to save the current state and open applications of their desktop and allow another user to log on without losing that information.

5. The ClearType font rendering mechanism, which is designed to improved text readability on Liquid Crystal Display(LCD) and similar monitors.

6. Remote Desktop functionality, which allows users to connect to a computer running Windows XP from across a network or the Internet and access their applications, files, printers, and devices

7. Support for most DSL modems and wireless network connections, as well as networking over FireWire.

System Requirements(Recommended):

1. • 233MHz processor (300 MHz or higher)

   • 64 MB RAM (128 MB RAM or higher)

   • Super VGA (800 x 600) video adapter and monitor (Super VGA (800 x 600) or higher)

   • 1.5 GB of hard drive space (1.5 GB or higher)

   • CD-ROM drive

   • Keyboard and mouse

   • Sound card, speakers, and headphones

   • Additional 1.8 GB hard disk space for WinXP SP2 during installation

Windows XP service pack:

1. Service Pack 1

1. • released on September 9 , 2002.

   • Supports USB 2.0

   • Set Program Access and Defaults utility.

1. Service Pack 2

1. • codenamed “Spring board”

   • released on August 6, 2004

   • enhanced firewall

   • improved Wi-Fi support with a wizard utility

   • pop-up ad blocker for Internet Explorer

   • Bluetooth support

1. Service Pack 3

1. • currently in development

Windows Vista

Windows Vista is a line of graphical operating systems used on personal computers, including home and business desktops, notebook computers, Tablet PCs, and media centers. Development was completed on November 8, 2006.

New and Improved Features:

1. 1. Windows Aero

1. • new hardware-based graphical user interface

   • and acronym for Authentic, Energetic, Reflective, and Open

   • intended to be cleaner and more aesthetically pleasing than those previous Windows, including new transparencies, live thumbnails, live icons, animations and eye candy

1. 1. Windows Shell

1. • offers a new range of organization, navigation, and search capabilities.

1. 1. Instant Search

1. • significantly faster and in-depth(content-based) than that of the search features found in any of the previous versions of Windows.

1. 1. Windows Sidebar

1. • a transparent panel anchored to the side of the screen where a user can place Desktop Gadgets, which are small applets designed for specialized purpose

1. 1. Windows Internet Explorer 7

1. • new user interface, tabbed browsing, RSS, a search box, improved printing, page zoom, quick tabs, anti phishing filter, a number of new security protection features, internationalized domain name support, and improved web standards support.

1. 1. Windows Media Player 11

1. • a major revamp of Microsoft’s program for playing and organizing music and video.

1. 1. Backup and Restore Center

1. • includes a backup and restore application that gives user the ability to schedule periodic backups of files on their computer, as well as recovery from previous backups.

1. 1. Windows Mail

1. • a replacement for Outlook Express that includes a new mail store that improves stability and features integrated Instant Search.

1. 1. Windows Calendar

1. • a new calendar and task application

1. 1. Windows Photo Gallery

1. • A photo and movie library management application.

1. 1. Windows DVD Maker

1. • a companion program to Windows Movie Maker, whick provides the ability to create video DVDs based on a user’s content.

1. 1. Windows Media Center

1. • which was previously exclusively bundled as a separate version of Windows XP, known as Windows XP Media Center Edition, has been incorporated into the Home Premium and Ultimate editions of Windows Vista.

1. 1. Games and Games Explorer

1. • games included with Windows have been modified to showcase Vista’s graphics capabilities.

   • New games are Chess Titans, Mahjong Titans and Purble Place.

1. 1. Windows Mobility Center

1. • a control panel that centralizes the most relevant information related to mobile computing.

1. 1. Windows Meeting Space

1. • replaces NetMeeting

1. 1. Shadow Copy

1. • automatically creates daily backup copies of files and folders.

1. 1. Windows Update

1. • software and security updates have been simplified, now operating solely via a control panel instead of as a web application.

1. 1. Parental controls

1. • allows administrators to control which websites, programs, and games each standard user can use and install.

1. 1. Windows SideShow

1. • enables the auxiliary displays on newer laptops or on supported Windows Mobile devices.

1. 1. Speech recognition

1. • features a redesigned user interface and configurable command-and-control command.

1. 1. New Fonts

   2. Problem Reports and Solutions

1. • a vontrol panel which allows users to view previously sent problems and any solutions or additional information that is available.

1. 1. System Performance Assessment

   2. Windows Ultimate Extras

   3. Built-in hard drive partition management

   4. Performance Diagnostic Console

Editions:

1. Windows Vista Starter

2. Windows Vista Home Basic

3. Windows Vista Home Premium

4. Windows Vista Ultimate

5. Windows Vista Business

6. Windows Vista Enterprise

System Requirements:

1. 1. 800 MHz processor (1.0GHz)

   2. 512 MB RAM (1GB RAM)

   3. DirectX 9 capable graphics card

   4. 20 GB HDD capacity(40GB)

   5. 15 HDD free space

   6. DVD-ROM

OSI background

            The “Open System Interconnection (OSI)” was created by the “International Organization for Standardization (ISO)” to represent an international standardization program that facilitates multi-vendor equipment interoperability.

There are four significant architectural entities in an OSI network namely:

1. Hosts – the one that provides data information which will be exchange..

2. Areas – lies within a domain.

              – a logical entity, it is formed by a set of contiguous routers and the data links                 that connect them.

3. A Backbone – areas that are connected together.

4. A Domain – any portion of an OSI network that is under common administrative           operation.

 7 OSI layers 

Layer 1 – Physical

            This is the most basic network layer which only provides the means of transmitting raw bits rather than packets over a physical data link connecting network nodes.  It provides an electrical, mechanical, and procedural interface to the transmission medium.

Major Functions and Services:

-          Bit-by-bit node-to-node delivery

-          Providing a standardized interface to physical transmission media, including

            - Mechanical specification of electrical connectors and cables (labels)

            - Electrical specification of transmission line, signal level and impedance

            - Radio interface, including electromagnetic spectrum frequency allocation

            - Specifications for IR over optical fiber or a wireless IR communication link

-          Modulation

-          Line coding

-          Bit synchronization in synchronous serial communication

-          Start-stop signaling and flow control in asynchronous serial communication

-          Circuit mode multiplexing

-          Carrier sense and collision detection utilized by some level 2 multiple access protocols

-          Equalization filtering, training sequences, pulse shaping and other signal processing of physical signals.

Examples:

1.      USB physical layer

2.      DSL

3.      Bluetooth physical layer

Layer 2 – Data Link

            This defines the format of data on the network. It responds to service requests from the network layer and issues service requests to the physical layer. This layer is responsible in transferring data between adjacent network nodes in a wide area network or between nodes on the same local area network segment.  It provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and might provide the means to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical layer.  Data link is all about getting information from one place to other places. It gives the convenience of getting information not within the place easily.  This is often implemented in software as a “network card driver”. This layer is responsible for node to node (hop to hop) packet delivery.

Examples:

1.      Ethernet

2.      ATM

Layer 3 – Network

            This responds to service requests from the transport layer and issues service requests to the data link layer. This layer is responsible for end to end (source to destination) packet delivery. It provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source to destination via one or more networks while maintaining the quality of service requested by the transport layer.

Network layer performs the following:

-          network routing

-          flow control

-          network segmentation/desegmentation

-          error control

            This layer deals with transmitting information all the way from its source to its destination.  OSI Network layer can be either connection oriented or connectionless.

Examples:

1.      Internet Protocol

2.      Datagram Delivery Protocol

Layer 4 – Transport

            This layer subdivides user-buffer into network buffer sized datagrams and enforces desired transmission control. The transport layer provides transparent of data between hosts. It is responsible for end-to-end connection, error recovery, flow control, and ensuring complete data transfer.

In this layer, there are two transport protocols:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – establishes connections between two hosts on        the network through sockets which are determined by the IP address and port    number.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – provides low overhead transmission service, but             with less error checking.

Examples:

1.      TCP, Transmission Control Protocol

2.      UDP, User Datagram Protocol

Layer 5 – Session

            This layer defines the format of the data sent over the connections.  It responds to service requests from the presentation layer and issues service requests to the transport layer.  This layer is typically completely unused, but it does have a few places where it is useful. The idea is to allow information on different streams, perhaps originating from different sources, to be properly combined. It deals with synchronization issues, and ensuring nobody ever sees inconsistent versions of data, and similar things like “web conference”.

Examples:

1.      ZIP, Zone Information Protocol

2.      NetBIOS, Network Basic Input Output System

Layer 6 – Presentation

            This layer provides independence from differences in data representation by translating from application to network format, and vice versa. It transforms data into the form that the application layer can accept giving it easy access to the data. It relieves the application layer of concern regarding syntactical differences in data representation within th eend-user systems.  This layer deals with issues like how strings are represented – whether they use the Pascal method or the C/C++ method.

Examples:            1.   AFP, AppleShare File Protocol 

Layer 7 – Application

            This layer supports application and end-user processes.  It provides application services for file transfers.

This layer does the following:

1.      Communication partners are identified

2.      Quality of service is identified

3.      User authentication and privacy are considered

4.      Any constraints on data syntax are identified

Examples:

1.      Mail

2.      Telnet

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